THE BOOK OF GALATIANS

CHAPTER ONE

Galatians 1:1–5

Greek-to-English (Hebraically aware translation):

1 Paul, an emissary (shaliach), not sent from human beings nor through a human, but through Yeshua the Messiah and God the Father, who raised him from the dead —
2 and all the brothers with me — to the assemblies (qehillot) of Galatia:
3 Favor (chen) to you and peace (shalom) from God our Father and from the lord Yeshua the Messiah,
4 who gave himself for our sins, to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father – Yehovah,
5 to Him be the glory forever and ever. Amen.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Emissary” (shellac) — Jewish legal term for an authorized representative who carries the sender’s full authority. Rooted in halakhic practice, “A man’s shellac is as himself” (Mishnah, Berakhot 5:5). Paul is using a Jewish concept to describe his apostolic role.
• “Not from human beings… but through Yeshua” — echoes prophetic calls like Jeremiah (Jeremiah 1:5) and Isaiah (Isaiah 49:1), where the messenger’s authority comes directly from God - Yehovah.
• “Favor and peace” — chen v’shalom combines Greek grace-language with the Aaronic blessing of peace (shalom) from Numbers 6:24–26.
• “Present evil age” — Jewish apocalyptic worldview divides time into “this age” (ha-olam hazeh) and “the age to come” (ha-olam haba). Paul says Messiah’s death inaugurates the rescue into the coming age.
• “According to the will of our God - Yehovah” — frames Yeshua’s death as not an accident but aligned with the divine plan in Isaiah 53:10.

Second Temple Context:

• Paul’s self-identification reflects how Second Temple Jewish messengers derived authority: either through the Sanhedrin, a recognized teacher, or directly by God (as prophets). Paul claims the last.
• The “present evil age” language mirrors Dead Sea Scroll language (1QS 4:18–23) about God’s – Yehovah’s people being delivered from the dominion of Belial into the age of righteousness.
• His greeting unites diaspora Jewish letter style (grace/favor in Greek) with Hebrew covenantal blessing (peace from God - Yehovah), signaling his message is for Jews and non-Jews alike.

Galatians 1:6–10

Hebraically Aware Translation:

6 I am astonished that you are so quickly turning away from the One who called you by the favor (chen) of Messiah, to a different good news —
7 which is not really another; but there are some who trouble you and want to distort the good news of Messiah.
8 But even if we — or a messenger from heaven — should proclaim a good news to you different from the one we proclaimed, let him be cherem (accursed, set apart for destruction).
9 As we have said before, now I say again: if anyone proclaims to you a good news contrary to what you received, let him be cherem.
10 For am I now seeking the approval of men, or of God - Yehovah? Or am I trying to please men? If I were still pleasing men, I would not be a servant (eved) of Messiah.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Favor of Messiah” — echoes chen (חן), the covenantal kindness and undeserved favor God - Yehovah shows in Exodus 33:12–17, where God tells Moses “you have found favor in My sight.”
• “Different good news” — Paul is alluding to besorah (בְּשׂוֹרָה), the “good news” heralded in Isaiah 52:7 about God’s – Yehovah’s reign and salvation. To distort it is to distort the prophetic hope.
• “Cherem” — Hebrew term used in Deuteronomy 13:5–11 for the ban on false prophets who lead Israel astray from Torah. Paul applies this severe covenantal language to those altering the Gospel.
• “Messenger from heaven” — recalls the seriousness with which Torah was given through angels (Deuteronomy 33:2; Acts 7:53). If even such a messenger contradicted the true besorah, they would be under judgment.
• “Servant of Messiah” — eved (עבד) in Hebrew denotes both servant and slave, often used for prophets and faithful leaders (Moses, David, Isaiah’s Servant Songs).

Second Temple Context:

• In Jewish thought, loyalty to God’s – Yehovah’s covenant message was non-negotiable. The Qumran sect (Dead Sea Scrolls) had their own “rule of the community” where deviation from their Teacher of Righteousness’ instruction brought expulsion and curse — Paul’s “cherem” mirrors this severity.
• The zeal for purity of teaching parallels the Maccabean and Pharisaic resistance to Hellenistic compromise — except here Paul’s “purity” is defined around Messiah’s work, not merely halakhic boundary markers.
• Paul’s statement that he is “not pleasing men” but God - Yehovah recalls the prophetic tradition (Jeremiah 1:17–19; Ezekiel 2:6–7) where God’s – Yehovah’s messenger must speak truth regardless of human approval.

Galatians 1:11–24

Hebraically Aware Translation:

11 For I make known to you, brothers, that the good news proclaimed by me is not according to man.
12 For I did not receive it from a human, nor was I taught it, but through a revelation of Yeshua the Messiah.
13 For you have heard of my former way of life in Judaism — how I persecuted the assembly of God (qahal Elohim) beyond measure and tried to destroy it.
14 And I was advancing in Judaism beyond many of my own age among my people, being extremely zealous for the traditions (masoretot) of my fathers.
15 But when God - Yehovah — who set me apart from my mother’s womb and called me through His favor —
16 was pleased to reveal His Son in me so that I might proclaim him among the nations, I did not immediately consult with flesh and blood,
17 nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were emissaries before me, but I went away into Arabia, and returned again to Damascus.
18 Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to get to know Cephas [Peter], and stayed with him fifteen days.
19 But I saw none of the other emissaries except Jacob (James), the brother of the lord.
20 (Now what I am writing to you, behold, before God - Yehovah, I am not lying.)
21 Then I went into the regions of Syria and Cilicia.
22 And I was still unknown by face to the assemblies of Messiah in Judea;
23 they only kept hearing: “The one who formerly persecuted us now proclaims the faith he once tried to destroy.”
24 And they glorified God - Yehovah because of me.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Set me apart from my mother’s womb” — identical prophetic calling language from Jeremiah 1:5 (“Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you”) and Isaiah 49:1, 5. Paul frames his apostleship as a continuation of Israel’s prophetic tradition.
• “Qahal Elohim” — Torah term for the “assembly of God,” used in Deuteronomy 23:2–4 for the gathered covenant community; in Greek LXX often rendered ἐκκλησία (ekklesia).
• “Zealous for the traditions” — Zeal (qin’ah) is a major Torah and prophetic virtue when defending God’s honor (Numbers 25:11; Psalm 69:9). Paul acknowledges his zeal but shows it was misdirected before Messiah’s revelation.
• “Reveal His Son in me” — The Hebrew sense here is both “to me” and “within me” — an inner transformation akin to Ezekiel 36:26–27, where God - Yehovah places His Spirit inside His people.
• “Among the nations” — direct link to the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 12:3 and Isaiah’s Servant mission in Isaiah 49:6, to bring light to the nations.

Second Temple Context:

• Paul’s Arabia reference likely means the Nabatean kingdom (home to Mt. Sinai), symbolically connecting his call to the place of Torah’s giving — this would have resonated with a Jewish audience as both irony and divine appointment.
• His zeal for ancestral traditions mirrors the Pharisaic emphasis on the oral Torah (later codified in Mishnah) as a hedge around the written Torah (Pirkei Avot 1:1).
• The idea of divine commissioning without human mediation matches prophetic precedent and also contrasts with the rabbinic chain of tradition (Moses → elders → prophets → men of the Great Assembly). Paul claims a direct heavenly interruption.

CHATPER TWO

Galatians 2:1–10

Hebraically Aware Translation:

1 Then after fourteen years I went up again to Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus with me also.
2 I went up because of a revelation, and I set before them the good news that I proclaim among the nations — but privately to those of reputation — so that I might not be running, or had run, in vain.
3 Yet even Titus, who was with me, being a Greek, was not compelled to be circumcised.
4 But this happened because of false brothers secretly brought in — who slipped in to spy out our freedom which we have in Messiah Yeshua, in order to enslave us —
5 to whom we did not yield in submission, not even for an hour, so that the truth of the good news might remain with you.
6 But from those who seemed to be something — whatever they were makes no difference to me, God - Yehovah shows no partiality — those of reputation added nothing to me.
7 On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the good news for the uncircumcised, just as Peter for the circumcised —
8 for the One who worked through Peter for the apostleship to the circumcised also worked through me for the nations —
9 and when Jacob (James), Cephas (Peter), and John, those esteemed as pillars, recognized the favor given to me, they gave the right hand of fellowship to Barnabas and me, so that we should go to the nations and they to the circumcised.
10 Only they asked us to remember the poor — the very thing I was eager to do.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Circumcision” — rooted in Genesis 17:9–14 as the sign of the Abrahamic covenant. The debate here isn’t about medical procedure but covenant identity: Do Gentiles need this sign to be full members of God’s people?
• “False brothers” — evokes Deuteronomy 13’s warnings about those who secretly lead Israel astray from the covenant.
• “Freedom in Messiah” — echoes Exodus 20:2 (“I am YHWH - YEHOVAH your God who brought you out of the house of slavery”). Paul sees Messiah’s work as a new Exodus for both Jew and Gentile.
• “God - Yehovah shows no partiality” — direct from Deuteronomy 10:17, where God - Yehovah is described as impartial in judgment. Paul uses it to reinforce equal covenant standing of Jew and Gentile.
• “Right hand of fellowship” — covenant gesture echoing Ezra 10:19, where giving the hand seals an agreement.
• “Remember the poor” — parallels Deuteronomy 15:7–11 and Isaiah 58:6–7; caring for the poor was a key covenant responsibility.

Second Temple Context:

• The circumcision debate was one of the hottest issues of the first century. Pharisaic and some priestly groups insisted Gentile converts take on full Torah observance (including circumcision) to be part of Israel. Paul’s stance — that Gentiles can be covenant members through Messiah without conversion — was radical but rooted in prophetic visions like Isaiah 56:3–7 and Zechariah 8:20–23.
• The idea of freedom here isn’t “do whatever you want” but “freedom from proselyte conversion requirements” — freedom to live as righteous Gentiles in Messiah without the yoke of full halakhic conversion.
• Private meeting with leaders reflects Jewish custom of resolving halakhic disputes among elders before public rulings were given — Paul is operating within that framework, not against it.
• The agreement to divide mission fields (nations vs. circumcision) echoes God’s division of tribal inheritances — different assignments but one covenant family.

Galatians 2:11–21

Hebraically Aware Translation:

11 But when Cephas [Peter] came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face, because he stood condemned.
12 For before certain men came from Jacob (James), he was eating with the nations; but when they came, he drew back and separated himself, fearing those of the circumcision.
13 And the rest of the Jews joined him in hypocrisy, so that even Barnabas was carried away by their hypocrisy.
14 But when I saw that they were not walking straight according to the truth of the good news, I said to Cephas in front of everyone:
“If you, being a Jew, live like the nations and not like the Jews, how can you compel the nations to live like Jews?”
15 We are Jews by birth, and not sinners from among the nations;
16 yet we know that a person is not declared righteous by works of the Torah, but through trust in Yeshua the Messiah. Even we have trusted in Messiah Yeshua, so that we might be declared righteous by trust in Messiah and not by works of the Torah, because by works of the Torah no flesh will be declared righteous.
17 But if, while seeking to be declared righteous in Messiah, we ourselves are found to be sinners, is Messiah then a servant of sin? May it never be!
18 For if I rebuild the things I tore down, I prove myself a transgressor.
19 For through the Torah I died to the Torah, so that I might live to God - Yehovah.
20 I have been crucified with Messiah, and it is no longer I who live, but Messiah lives in me. And the life I now live in the flesh I live by trust in the Son of God, who loved me and gave Himself for me.
21 I do not set aside the favor of God - Yehovah; for if righteousness comes through the Torah, then Messiah died for nothing.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Eating with the nations” — echoes Isaiah’s vision (Isaiah 25:6–8) of a future banquet for all peoples. In Torah law, table fellowship was a major marker of covenant purity (Leviticus 11; Deuteronomy 14), so this was a sensitive boundary.
• “Walking straight according to the truth” — recalls Psalm 119:1 and the Hebrew idiom halakh b’derekh (“to walk in the way”) meaning covenant faithfulness. Paul uses it to measure their behavior against the truth of the besorah.
• “Declared righteous” — Hebrew tsadaq (צדק), the covenant courtroom verdict of being in the right before God (Deuteronomy 25:1).
• “Works of the Torah” — see Dead Sea Scroll 4QMMT for this phrase; likely refers to covenantal boundary markers (circumcision, dietary laws, calendar) rather than all obedience.
• “Through the Torah I died to the Torah” — Torah itself (esp. the prophets) pointed beyond its own covenant administration to the coming new covenant (Jeremiah 31:31–34; Habakkuk 2:4), so embracing Messiah fulfills its purpose.
• “Crucified with Messiah” — covenant participation language; echoes Isaiah 53 and the concept of dying with the righteous servant to share in his vindication.

Second Temple Context:

• Table fellowship was a major identity marker. Pharisaic and Essene groups often restricted meals to covenant members to maintain purity. By eating with Gentile believers without requiring conversion, Peter was living out the prophetic vision — until pressure from “circumcision” advocates made him revert.
• Paul’s public rebuke matches the prophetic tradition of confronting leaders (2 Samuel 12:1–7; Amos 7:10–17; Nehemiah 13:15–27).
• The phrase “works of the Torah” would have been understood in Jewish halakhic debates as specific covenant obligations marking Jewish identity — not general moral works. Paul argues these markers are not the basis for covenant membership.
• The statement “if righteousness comes through the Torah, then Messiah died for nothing” is a radical re-centering of covenant standing entirely on Messiah’s faithfulness, cutting against both the Pharisaic and Qumran covenant models.

CHAPTER THREE

Galatians 3:1–14

Hebraically Aware Translation:

1 O foolish Galatians! Who has cast a spell over you — before whose eyes Yeshua the Messiah was clearly portrayed as crucified?
2 This only I want to learn from you: Did you receive the Spirit by works of the Torah, or by hearing with trust?
3 Are you so foolish? Having begun by the Spirit, are you now being completed by the flesh?
4 Did you suffer so many things for nothing — if indeed it was for nothing?
5 So then, the One who supplies the Spirit to you and works mighty deeds among you — does He do it by works of the Torah, or by hearing with trust?
6 Just as Abraham “trusted God - Yehovah, and it was counted to him as righteousness” —
7 therefore know that those who are of trust, these are sons of Abraham.
8 And the Scripture, foreseeing that God - Yehovah would declare the nations righteous by trust, proclaimed the good news beforehand to Abraham, saying, “In you all the nations will be blessed.”
9 So then, those who are of trust are blessed with the trusting Abraham.
10 For all who are of works of the Torah are under a curse, for it is written, “Cursed is everyone who does not remain in all things written in the book of the Torah, to do them.”
11 Now it is clear that no one is declared righteous before God by the Torah, because “the righteous shall live by trust.”
12 But the Torah is not of trust; rather, “the one who does them shall live by them.”
13 Messiah redeemed us from the curse of the Torah by becoming a curse for us — for it is written, “Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree” —
14 so that the blessing of Abraham might come to the nations in Messiah Yeshua, so that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through trust.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Cast a spell” — imagery from Deuteronomy 18:10–12 where sorcery is a means of leading Israel away from YHWH - YEHOVAH; Paul uses it metaphorically for deceptive influence.
• “By works of the Torah or by hearing with trust?” — “hearing” echoes shema (שמע), which in Hebrew thought means hearing and obeying in trust.
• Genesis 15:6 — foundational covenant verse: Abraham’s trust in God was credited (chashav, חשב) as righteousness, long before circumcision (Genesis 17).
• Genesis 12:3 — “In you all nations will be blessed” — Paul frames the Gospel as the fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant.
• Deuteronomy 27:26 — “Cursed is everyone who does not uphold all the words of this Torah” — Paul argues that relying on law-keeping for covenant status brings the risk of curse because perfect obedience is required.
• Habakkuk 2:4 — “The righteous shall live by trust” — key prophetic text showing life (covenant blessing) is tied to trust, not solely law-keeping.
• Leviticus 18:5 — “The one who does them shall live by them” — showing that Torah’s life-giving aspect is tied to doing, but not necessarily to covenant membership for Gentiles.
• Deuteronomy 21:23 — “Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree” — Paul applies this to Messiah’s crucifixion, interpreting it as bearing the covenant curse in our place.

Second Temple Context:

• Paul’s method here is stringing together multiple Torah and Prophets texts — a rabbinic midrash technique (gezerah shavah) where key phrases link verses to build a theological argument.
• In Jewish debate, Abraham was often cited as the model covenant member; some Second Temple groups (e.g., Jubilees, Qumran) emphasized his Torah obedience (Gensis 26:5) — Paul instead emphasizes his trust before Torah.
• The “curse of the Torah” here isn’t saying Torah is bad; it’s the covenant penalty for disobedience (Deuteronomy 27–30). Paul’s claim is that Messiah bore this curse to bring Gentiles into the Abrahamic blessing without them undergoing full proselyte conversion.
• By tying Spirit-reception directly to trust, Paul makes it the key sign of covenant inclusion — replacing circumcision as the main entry marker for Gentiles.

Galatians 3:15–29

Hebraically Aware Translation:

15 Brothers, I speak like a human: even a human covenant, once ratified, cannot be annulled or added to.
16 Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. It does not say, “And to seeds,” as of many, but as of one, “And to your seed,” which is Messiah.
17 Now this I say: a Torah that came four hundred and thirty years later cannot annul a covenant previously established by God - Yehovh and thus invalidate the promise.
18 For if the inheritance comes by the Torah, it no longer comes by promise; but God - Yehovah gave it to Abraham by promise.
19 Why then the Torah? It was added because of transgressions, until the coming of the seed to whom the promise was made. It was ordained by angels through the hands of a mediator.
20 Now a mediator is not for one party alone, but God - Yehovah is one.
21 Is the Torah then against the promises of God - Yehovah? May it never be! For if a Torah had been given that could give life, then righteousness would indeed come through the Torah.
22 But the Scripture imprisoned everything under sin, so that the promise by trust in Yeshua Messiah might be given to those who believe.
23 But before faith came, we were guarded under the Torah, locked up until the faith that was to be revealed.
24 Therefore the Torah became our guardian (pedagogue) until Messiah came, so that we might be declared righteous by faith.
25 But now that faith has come, we are no longer under a guardian.
26 For you are all sons of God - Yehovah through trust in Messiah Yeshua.
27 For as many of you as were baptized into Messiah have clothed yourselves with Messiah.
28 There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Messiah Yeshua.
29 And if you belong to Messiah, then you are Abraham’s seed, heirs according to the promise.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Covenant ratification” — Jewish law treats covenants like binding legal contracts (Exodus 24:7–8; Jeremiah 31:31). Once God established the Abrahamic covenant, later laws cannot revoke it.
• “Seed” (זֶרַע, zera‘) — a singular collective noun often used in Torah and Prophets to indicate a promised offspring who embodies covenant continuation (Genesis 12:7; 13:15; Isaiah 53). Paul identifies this seed explicitly as Messiah.
• “Mediator” (מְסִדָּר, mesiddar) — Torah given through angels (Acts 7:53; Galatians 3:19) with Moses as the human mediator, but God is the ultimate party to the covenant (Deuteronomy 5:5).
• “Torah as guardian (pedagogue)” — the Torah as a custodian or disciplinarian to prepare the people until Messiah, paralleling na‘al or shomer concepts in Hebrew.
• “Clothed with Messiah” — image from Isaiah 61:10 and wedding imagery, symbolizing full covenant identity and transformation.
• “Neither Jew nor Greek...” — breaks down traditional ethnic, social, and gender divisions found in Torah and later Jewish society, emphasizing the new covenant equality.

Second Temple Context:

• Paul uses Jewish legal argumentation about covenants, much like the rabbis who debated Torah and promise interplay.
• The idea that the Torah was a temporary custodian before the coming of the Messiah would resonate with Jewish audiences familiar with the concept of an interim “pedagogue” or tutor, sometimes connected with Greek pedagogy but here rooted in Hebrew legal thought.
• The emphasis on faith as the defining marker echoes the Qumran community’s idea of the “Sons of Light” as those who walk in the Spirit, not merely the law.
• The inclusive language (Jew/Greek, slave/free, male/female) reflects a radical covenantal redefinition, contrasting with strict Jewish boundaries and anticipating the universal vision of Isaiah 56 and 66.

CHAPTER FOUR

Galatians 4:1–20

Hebraically Aware Translation:

1 Now I say that as long as the heir is a child, he is no different from a slave, though he is the owner of everything,
2 but is under guardians and managers until the time set by the father.
3 So we also, when we were children, were enslaved to the basic elements (stoicheia) of the world.
4 But when the fullness of time came, God - Yehovah sent His Son, born of a woman, born under the Torah,
5 to redeem those under the Torah, so that we might receive adoption as sons.
6 And because you are sons, God - Yehovah sent the Spirit of His Son into our hearts, crying, “Abba, Father!”
7 So you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then also an heir of God - Yehovah through Messiah.
8 But then, indeed, when you did not know God - Yehovah, you were enslaved to those not gods.
9 Now, however, since you have come to know God - Yehovah — or rather, have been known by God - Yehovah — how can you turn back again to the weak and worthless elements to which you want to be enslaved again?
10 You observe days and months and seasons and years.
11 I am afraid for you, that I may have labored over you in vain.
12 Brothers, I plead with you, become like me, because I also have become like you. You did me no wrong.
13 You know that because of a physical illness I first preached the good news to you.
14 And even though my condition was a trial to you, you did not scorn or despise me, but received me like an angel of God - Yehovah, like Messiah Yeshua himself.
15 What then became of the blessing you enjoyed? For I testify to you that, if possible, you would have torn out your eyes and given them to me.
16 So have I become your enemy by telling you the truth?
17 They are zealous for you, but not for good. They want to exclude you, so that you will be zealous for them.
18 But it is good to be zealous for good things always, and not only when I am with you.
19 My little children, for whom I am again in labor until Messiah is formed in you—
20 I wish I could be with you now and change my tone, because I am perplexed about you.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Heir as a child... no different from a slave” — Jewish law recognized heirs who were minors as under shomrim (guardians), similar to servants until they came of age (Mishnah, Kiddushin 4:2). This reflected the legal reality of inheritance and responsibility.
• “Born under the Torah” — echoes the language of Jeremiah 31:31–34 about the coming new covenant, implying submission to Torah before the new covenant’s full realization.
• “Adoption as sons” — ben (בן) is a key identity marker in Israel; adoption language parallels the prophetic restoration theme where God - Yehovah calls Israel His ben (e.g., Hosea 11:1).
• “Abba, Father!” — intimate Aramaic/Hebrew term for “Dad,” reflecting a close, personal relationship with God - Yehovah that goes beyond formal covenant adherence.
• “Enslaved to basic elements” — stoicheia (στοιχεῖα) possibly corresponds to the “principles” or “elemental spirits” of the world; Jewish thought saw idol worship and legalistic Torah observance (without Messiah) as forms of bondage (see 1QS 4:16–23).
• “Observing days and months” — refers to ritual calendar observances from Torah (Leviticus 23; Numbers 28–29). Paul warns against reverting to legalistic ritualism.

Second Temple Context:

• The imagery of heirs under guardianship would resonate strongly with Jewish legal traditions regarding minors and heirs — a familiar metaphor for Israel under the Torah before Messiah’s coming.
• The idea of “adoption” and intimate relationship with God - Yehovah reflects emerging Jewish mystical and covenantal thought in texts like 4 Ezra and the Dead Sea Scrolls, where God’s – Yehovah’s people are called His “sons” in a new way.
• Paul’s plea and emotional tone mirror the prophetic language of pastoral concern found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel when God laments Israel’s waywardness.
• The warning against reverting to ritual observance without heart transformation aligns with Second Temple critiques of mere external compliance without covenant faithfulness.

Galatians 4:21–31

Hebraically Aware Translation:

21 Tell me, you who desire to be under the Torah, do you not hear the Torah?
22 For it is written that Abraham had two sons: one by a slave woman, and one by a free woman.
23 But the son of the slave was born according to the flesh, and the son of the free woman was born through the promise.
24 This is an allegory: these women represent two covenants. One is from Mount Sinai, bearing children into slavery — this is Hagar.
25 Now Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia and corresponds to the present Jerusalem, for she is in slavery with her children.
26 But the Jerusalem above is free; she is our mother.
27 For it is written:
“Rejoice, barren one who does not bear!
Break forth and shout, you who have no labor pains!
For the children of the desolate are more numerous
Than the children of the one who is married.”
28 Now you, brothers, like Isaac, are children of promise.
29 But just as then the one born according to the flesh persecuted the one born according to the Spirit, so it is now.
30 However, what does the Scripture say?
“Cast out the slave woman and her son, for the son of the slave woman will not inherit with the son of the free woman.”
31 Therefore, brothers, we are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• Two sons of Abraham — directly from Genesis 16 and 21: Ishmael (slave woman Hagar) and Isaac (free woman Sarah). The contrast between natural birth and covenant promise is a classic biblical motif.
• Allegory (midrash) — Paul employs a rabbinic hermeneutic method common in Second Temple Judaism, where biblical narratives are interpreted as typologies for covenant realities.
• Mount Sinai in Arabia — Sinai is the site where Torah was given (Exodus 19–24); Arabia may refer to the wilderness region around Sinai (Deuteronomy 1:1).
• Present Jerusalem vs. Jerusalem above — recalls prophetic dualities in Isaiah (Isaiah 52:1; 65:17) and later Jewish apocalyptic writings where earthly Jerusalem is contrasted with a heavenly, ideal city.
• The barren woman’s song (Isaiah 54:1) — an oracle of hope where the desolate woman’s children outnumber those of the married, symbolizing the surprising growth of the new covenant community.
• Inheritance and casting out — legal terms from Deuteronomy and Genesis, used here as covenantal language about who truly belongs to God’s – Yehovah’s family.

Second Temple Context:

• The allegorical reading of Sarah and Hagar was widespread in Jewish exegetical traditions (e.g., Philo, Jubilees), often symbolizing two covenantal paths—slavery to law vs. freedom by promise.
• The “Jerusalem above” imagery is typical of apocalyptic Judaism (4 Ezra, 2 Baruch), where the heavenly city represents God’s eternal covenant people.
• Paul’s polemic reflects ongoing debates in Jewish-Gentile relations over whether Torah-bound Judaism or faith in the Messiah defined true covenant membership.
• The contrast between “born according to the flesh” and “born according to the Spirit” echoes Jewish mystical and sectarian texts about spiritual rebirth and covenant renewal (e.g., Dead Sea Scrolls).

CHAPTER FIVE

Galatians 5:1–15

Hebraically Aware Translation:

1 Stand firm, therefore, in the freedom with which Messiah has made us free, and do not submit again to the yoke of slavery.
2 Listen! I, Paul, say to you that if you accept circumcision, Messiah will be of no benefit to you.
3 And I testify again to every man who accepts circumcision that he is obligated to keep the entire Torah.
4 You have been severed from Messiah, you who seek to be declared righteous by the Torah; you have fallen away from grace.
5 For through the Spirit we wait eagerly for the hope of righteousness by faith.
6 For in Messiah Yeshua neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value, but faith working through love.
7 You were running well! Who hindered you from obeying the truth?
8 This persuasion is not from the One who calls you.
9 A little yeast leavens the whole dough.
10 I have confidence in you in the lord that you will have no other mind; but the one who troubles you will bear judgment, whoever he is.
11 And I, brothers, if I still preach circumcision, why am I still persecuted? Then the offense of the cross is removed.
12 I wish those who unsettle you would castrate themselves!
13 For you, brothers, were called to freedom. Only do not use freedom as an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another.
14 For the whole Torah is fulfilled in one word: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself.”
15 But if you bite and devour one another, watch out that you are not consumed by one another.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Yoke of slavery” — alludes to Torah observance as a yoke (חֹבָה, chovah) in Jewish tradition; Jesus used this metaphor too (Matthew 11:29–30). Torah is seen as a heavy burden when misunderstood or misapplied.
• Circumcision and Torah observance — closely tied in Jewish covenant identity (Genesis 17:10–14); Paul emphasizes that accepting circumcision implies keeping the whole Torah, not just the sign.
• “Faith working through love” — echoes ahavah (אהבה), the central ethical principle in Torah (Leviticus 19:18), the “greatest commandment” of the prophets (Hosea 6:6), and Jewish wisdom literature.
• “Love your neighbor as yourself” — direct quote from Leviticus 19:18, which Jewish tradition considered a summary of the Torah’s ethical demands.
• “A little yeast leavens the whole dough” — yeast as a metaphor for corrupting influence is common in Jewish teaching (e.g., 1 Corinthians 5:6). Yeast also had symbolic connections to sin and impurity (Exodus 12:15–20).

Second Temple Context:

• The tension between freedom in Messiah and Torah observance mirrors broader Jewish debates of the period about the role of law for Gentile believers. Some groups advocated full Torah adherence; Paul argues for liberation through faith.
• The phrase “fallen away from grace” (χαρίζομαι, charis) emphasizes the covenantal relationship of unearned favor, a concept developing in Second Temple Judaism but radicalized by Paul in Messiah’s context.
• Serving one another in love reflects rabbinic ethics (Pirkei Avot 1:12) and is a hallmark of covenant community life, showing that freedom is not license but relational responsibility.
• Paul’s harsh words in verse 12 reflect the passionate polemics common in Jewish intra-communal debates against those seen as dangerous innovators.

Galatians 5:16–26

Hebraically Aware Translation:

16 But I say, walk by the Spirit, and you will not fulfill the desires of the flesh.
17 For the flesh desires against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh; these are opposed to one another, so that you do not do what you want.
18 But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the Torah.
19 Now the works of the flesh are evident: sexual immorality, impurity, licentiousness,
20 idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, fits of anger, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions,
21 envy, drunkenness, carousing, and things like these. I warn you, as I warned you before, that those who do such things will not inherit the kingdom of God.
22 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness,
23 gentleness, self-control; against such things there is no law.
24 And those who belong to Messiah Yeshua have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires.
25 If we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit.
26 Let us not become conceited, provoking one another, envying one another.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Walk by the Spirit” — Hebrew halakh (הלך) “to walk” signifies living a covenantal life; walking b’ruach means living in the power and guidance of God’s Spirit (cf. Ezekiel 36:27).
• “Flesh” (בָּשָׂר, basar) in Jewish thought often refers to the fallen human condition or sinful nature opposed to God’s Spirit (Genesis 6:3; Psalm 78:39).
• Works of the flesh — many are direct Torah violations: sexual immorality (זְנוּת), idolatry (עֲבוֹדַת אֱלִילִים), strife (רִיב), jealousy (קִנְאָה), drunkenness (שִׁכּוּרִים), etc. These represent covenant unfaithfulness and social discord.
• Fruit of the Spirit — qualities like ahavah (love), simchah (joy), shalom (peace), erekh apayim (patience/longsuffering), chesed (kindness/lovingkindness), tzedakah (goodness/righteousness), emet (faithfulness), anavah (gentleness/humility), and self-control — all deeply rooted in Jewish ethical teachings (e.g., Proverbs, Psalms, Torah commandments).
• “Against such things there is no law” — Paul points out these virtues transcend the letter of the law, embodying its spirit (cf. Micah 6:8).
• “Crucified the flesh” — covenantal participation metaphor echoing Isaiah 53’s suffering servant and Ezekiel’s call to put off former ways (Ezekiel 18:31).

Second Temple Context:

• The dualistic tension between Spirit and flesh mirrors Jewish wisdom and apocalyptic literature, which describe internal spiritual struggles (e.g., 1 Enoch, Sirach 37:26).
• The list of works of the flesh corresponds to known Torah prohibitions and social norms governing Israelite holiness.
• The fruit of the Spirit reflects the ethical ideals found in the Wisdom tradition (e.g., Proverbs 3:17, 11:17) and the prophetic vision of the Spirit’s transforming power (Isaiah 11:1–5).
• Paul’s exhortation to “walk by the Spirit” resonates with the Qumran community’s emphasis on Spirit-led righteousness, contrasting their legalism with genuine internal transformation.

CHAPTER SIX

Galatians 6:1–10

Hebraically Aware Translation:

1 Brothers, if a person is caught in any trespass, you who are spiritual should restore such a one in a spirit of gentleness. Watch yourself, so that you also are not tempted.
2 Bear one another’s burdens, and thus fulfill the Torah of Messiah.
3 For if anyone thinks he is something when he is nothing, he deceives himself.
4 But let each one test his own work, and then he will have reason for pride only in himself, and not in comparison to another.
5 For each one will bear his own load.
6 Let the one who is taught the word share all good things with the one who teaches.
7 Do not be deceived: God - Yehovah is not mocked, for whatever one sows, that will he also reap.
8 For the one who sows to his own flesh will reap corruption from the flesh, but the one who sows to the Spirit will reap eternal life.
9 And let us not grow weary in doing good, for at the proper time we will reap, if we do not give up.
10 So then, as we have opportunity, let us do good to all, especially to those who belong to the household of faith.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• “Restore such a one in gentleness” — reflects the prophetic and Torah mandate of tikkun (repair) and chesed (kindness), emphasizing the spirit of humility in community discipline (Leviticus 19:17–18; Galatians 6:1 echoes this).
• “Bear one another’s burdens” — parallels Torah’s call for communal responsibility (Exodus 23:4–5; Leviticus 25:35). Paul calls this “fulfilling the Torah of Messiah,” meaning the law’s ethical heart is realized in mutual care.
• “Test his own work” — echoes the wisdom tradition of self-examination (Ecclesiastes 7:20; Psalm 26:2).
• “Sow and reap” — agricultural metaphor common in Jewish teaching for moral causality (Hosea 10:12; Proverbs 22:8).
• “Sowing to the Spirit” — imagery linking spiritual investment to eternal reward, paralleling prophetic visions of spiritual fruitfulness (Jeremiah 31:27; Ezekiel 36:26–27).
• “Do good to all” — reflects the Torah command to love and serve neighbors and strangers (Lev. 19:18; Deuteronomy 10:19).

Second Temple Context:

• Paul’s emphasis on gentle restoration fits well within Jewish communal ethics that value humility, repentance, and reconciliation over harsh judgment.
• The agricultural imagery of sowing and reaping was a widespread metaphor in Second Temple Judaism for divine justice and human responsibility.
• Doing good especially to the household of faith reflects the Jewish priority of kehillah — the covenant community — balanced with universal ethical concern.
• The encouragement to not grow weary parallels exhortations in Jewish wisdom literature and the Dead Sea Scrolls about perseverance in covenant faithfulness

Galatians 6:11–18

Hebraically Aware Translation:

11 See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand.
12 Those who desire to make a good showing in the flesh try to compel you to be circumcised only to avoid persecution for the cross of Messiah.
13 For even those who are circumcised do not keep the Torah, but they desire to have you circumcised so that they may boast in your flesh.
14 But far be it from me to boast except in the cross of our Lord Yeshua Messiah, through whom the world has been crucified to me, and I to the world.
15 For neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; but a new creation means everything.
16 And as many as walk by this rule, peace and mercy be upon them, and upon the Israel of God.
17 From now on let no one trouble me, for I bear on my body the marks of Yeshua.
18 The grace of our Lord Yeshua Messiah be with your spirit, brothers. Amen.

Hebrew & Tanakh Connections:

• Paul’s large handwriting (v.11) emphasizes the personal and urgent nature of his message, echoing prophetic written declarations (Jeremiah 36).
• “Those who desire to make a good showing in the flesh” refers to those focused on outward ritual observance (circumcision), reminiscent of Pharisaic emphasis on external purity (Isaiah 29:13).
• Circumcision without Torah obedience critiques superficial covenant identity without true covenant faithfulness (Deuteronomy 10:16; Jeremiah 4:4).
• Boasting only in the cross contrasts worldly pride with the paradoxical Hebrew concept of cherem (devoted to destruction) suffering that brings redemption (Isaiah 53).
• “New creation” (בְּרִיאָה חֲדָשָׁה, beriyah chadashah) reflects prophetic promises of renewal (Isaiah 43:19; Ezekiel 36:26) and apocalyptic Jewish hope for transformed Israel.
• “Israel of God - Yehovah” can be understood as the true covenant people defined by faith in Messiah, recalling the theme of spiritual Israel (Romans 9:6).
• “Marks on my body” recall the suffering servant motif (Isaiah 53:5) and the bodily scars of faithful covenant witnesses (1 Kings 18:28; Ezekiel 9:4).
• Closing blessing reflects typical Hebrew benedictions and apostolic greetings rooted in covenant community life.

Second Temple Context:

• The contrast between external signs (circumcision) and inner transformation (new creation) mirrors debates in Jewish sects about true covenant membership (Pharisees vs. Essenes).
• The concept of a “new creation” aligns with apocalyptic literature’s vision of Israel’s restoration and renewal (4 Ezra 7:28; 2 Baruch 29).
• The “Israel of God - Yehovah” phrase would resonate with groups emphasizing the spiritual, elect community over ethnic lineage (Qumran sectarian texts).
• Paul’s emphasis on bearing marks and identifying with Messiah’s suffering recalls martyrdom ideals emerging in Jewish and early Christian circles.