Jude's eschatology is oriented around the twin poles of eschatological salvation and judgment with the latter being more prominent. Judgment in Jude
includes not only past and future judgment but present judgment as well.
Allusions to past judgment highlight the punishment aspect of the judicial
process while references to future and present judgment highlight laying
charges and producing a guilty verdict. The rhetorical function of Jude's
eschatology is:
(1) to convince his readers also to engage in judgment: to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness, and
(2) to reassure his readers that they themselves will not be judged but instead are being guarded by God.
The social function of Jude's eschatology is to bring about a separation between the original community and the intruders. These two functions address both the external threat of the intruders themselves and the internal threat of their negative impact on the readers' ethics, theology, and unity.
Key words: Jude, eschatology, judgment, rhetoric
Eschatological Salvation in Jude
The theme of eschatological salvation is most clearly stated in the appeal in verse 21, in which Jude exhorts his readers to be "looking forward to the mercy of our lord Jesus God's anointed one unto age upon age lasting life." The term "mercy" was frequently used to identify the hope of eschatological salvation, and the verb "to look forward" is used to express anticipation of that hope. Eschatological salvation is also hinted at in the opening salutation, in which the readers are described as those who are "kept safe for Jesus God's anointed one" (v.1b). Both these references allude to the parousia. In verse 21 the parousia of Jesus God's anointed one is not only a time when he will extend mercy to believers, the parousia is itself mercy for believers; that which has been anticipated is now fulfilled; that which has been endured is now done away. In verse 1 the parousia of Jesus is the anticipated goal for which God guards believers.
Similarly, in the first half of the letter's concluding benediction, Jude affirms for his readers that God "is able . . . to make you stand without blemish in the presence of his glory with rejoicing" (v. 24). This reference probably pictures "the eschatological festival of worship." After the parousia the people of God are presented before him as sacrifices without blemish, who worship the one who kept them safe (v.1b) and guarded them (v. 24)
Eschatological Judgment in Jude
While this epistle does refer to eschatological salvation, it is quite evident that the most prominent feature of this epistle's eschatology is the theme of judgment.
Two general observations need to be made before we proceed to examine this theme more closely. First of all, the concept of eschatological judgment is an analogy drawn from human judicial systems. A judicial system incorporates various elements, including a charge laid against a defendant, evidence to support the charge, a verdict, a passing of sentence, and an execution of the punishment. Eschatological judgment incorporates these same elements. It is important when examining the theme of eschatological judgment to distinguish between these various elements that contribute to this theme.
Second, in Jude the theme of judgment is not only a future eschatological event. Past and present are woven together with the future to produce a rich tapestry of intimations, allusions, and interpretations. Yet allusions to past and present judgment are still part of the eschatological orientation of the epistle, for they contribute to understanding the theme of the future, eschatological judgment. Such a relationship between past and future is one of the features of the apocalyptic genre. While Jude is an epistle, not an apocalypse, Jude's perspective is clearly informed by an apocalyptic orientation.
Applying these two observations to the text of Jude allows us to be more discerning about how this eschatological theme is functioning in Jude.
Explicit references to past judgment have been grouped together by the author into two sets of three. The first triad, verses 5-7, summarizes three illustrations of judgment gathered from stories of the past: the Israelites being destroyed in the wilderness, the disenfranchised angels being kept in chains awaiting judgment, and Sodom and Gomorrah being punished with eternal fire. In the second triad, verse 11, the mere names of three infamous characters conjure up images of judgment: Cain, Balaam, and Korah.
These two sets of triads, however, do not merely refer to judgment in the past. They also allude to the present and the future. The disenfranchised angels are not simply described as having been judged in the past, but are described as "kept in perpetual chains under darkness" in the present. And with respect to the future, these chains hold them until "the judgment of the great day" (v. 6). Similarly, the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were not merely punished in the past; their punishment is "eternal fire" in which they continue to be "exhibited as an example" in the present (v. 7). Not only does the language used in describing these primordial events suggest they have a paradigmatic significance for the readers, the text makes this explicit by linking these three examples to the readers' own current situation in verse 8: “Yet in the same way also these dreamers. . . .”
In much the same way, the brief references to Cain, Balaam, and Korah (v. 11) are not only references to past judgment. They are contained within a woe pronounced upon "them," that is, the intruders Jude is opposing. Past judgment upon these three characters becomes a present condemnation of the intruders.
A closer examination of these references to past judgment clarifies more precisely the aspects of judgment being emphasized. With respect to the first triad (vv. 5-7), the main point of each illustration of judgment is expressed by the finite verb. In each case the emphasis is upon the execution of some form of punishment: the wilderness wanderers are "destroyed"; the disenfranchised angels are "kept" in perpetual chains and darkness," and the cities are "exhibited as an example by undergoing the punishment of fire." While the emphasis of this triad is on the execution of punishment, the evidence brought against each of them is also mentioned in a participial clause: the wilderness wanderers were those "who did not believe;" the disenfranchised angels were those "who did not keep their own dominion, but abandoned their proper dwelling," and the cities were those which "indulged in sexual immorality and went after different flesh."
With respect to future judgment, the strongest statement is the quotation of Enoch's prophecy in verses 14-15. "Behold, the Lord is coming with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment against all, and to convict all the ungodly of all the deeds of ungodliness which they have committed in an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things which ungodly sinners have spoken against him." The parousia, which is anticipated as the time of eschatological salvation, is in this text announced as the time of eschatological judgment. It is important to note, however, that certain elements of judgment are highlighted. Jude's quotation of 1 Enoch 1:9 does not follow any extant version.
The first difference between Jude's text and the others which is significant for our purposes is the number of elements of eschatological judgment brought by the lord. The two elements contained in Jude's quote are:
(1) "to execute judgment against all"
(2) "to convict all the ungodly".
The Greek, Ethiopic and Latin versions do not have two elements as does Jude, but three:
(1) to execute judgment;
(2) to destroy, and
(3) to convict.
The first of these is a general reference to judgment, and by itself it does not specify any particular element of the judicial process. And Jude has used this first element. But Jude has chosen not to refer at all to the destruction of the ungodly (i.e., the element of punishment) so that he might focus attention on one specific element of the judicial process: the ungodly being convicted of the charges laid against them.
This places Jude's use of 1 Enoch 1:9 in some tension with its immediate context in 1 Enoch 1 which is filled with echoes of the divine warrior tradition; a tradition which emphasizes the element of punishment. If, as is probable, Jude's audience was aware of this context, then Jude's redaction of the text would contribute to its rhetorical effect.
The second significant difference is that the identification of those being convicted is changed. In the other versions the object of the verb "to destroy" is "the ungodly," and the object of the verb "to convict" is "all flesh." The other versions of 1 Enoch 1:9 emphasize the universality of the process of being convicted and reserve destruction specifically for the ungodly. Jude drops the universal reference to "all flesh," but he retains the specific reference to "the ungodly," making them the focus of the conviction. With this alteration Jude focuses the eschatological judgment, and the element of conviction in particular, on the ungodly.
Both these redactional alterations in Jude's quotations of 1 Enoch do one thing: they bring greater focus and specificity to the nature and recipients of the judgment. By removing a reference to that part of the judicial process in which the punishment is carried out, judgment is specified as laying charges and convicting of those charges. By removing a reference to "all flesh," judgment is focused on those identified as ungodly. Thus, this reference to eschatological judgment focuses attention on the particular judicial elements of bringing a charge of ungodliness and producing a verdict of guilty.
What we see thus far with respect to judgment in Jude is that references to past judgment focus on the punishment aspect of the judicial process, while the references to future judgment focus on other elements of the judicial system, namely, laying charges and producing a guilty verdict.
As with future judgment, references to present judgment in Jude also concentrate on those aspects of the judicial process involving laying charges and producing a guilty verdict. For example, verses 8-10 apply the examples from the past (vv. 5-7) to the intruders. But the attention is focused on the evidence to support a charge of ungodliness, and not on punishment.
A second example may be observed in the woe oracle in verse 11 which is the second triad of allusions to stories of judgment in the Hebrew Bible. Each specific reference alludes to the evil behavior of the individual: "the way of Cain," "the error of Balaam," and "the rebellion of Korah." While the stories associated with each individual in both the Hebrew Bible and later Jewish tradition expand on both their evil behavior and their subsequent punishment, the focus of Jude's allusion in each instance is upon their evil behavior. This woe oracle is not announcing woe upon these persons from the past but upon the intruders whom Jude is denouncing. The oracle begins, "Woe to them!" The antecedent of is the pronoun in verses 10 and 8, and alludes back ultimately to the intruders described in verse 4. Thus, each of the three statements in this triad are describing the intruders: the intruders "go in the way of Cain;" the intruders "abandon themselves to Balaam's error," and it is the intruders who "perish in Korah's rebellion."
Notice:
First of all, the eschatology has a rhetorical function, which in turn has a number of distinct elements. References to past judgment, especially verses 5-7, emphasize the punishment of those who committed acts of ungodliness. These examples from the past would be familiar to Jude's Jewish-Christian readers, who would naturally respond with agreement in two ways: those people were obviously ungodly, and they clearly deserved to be punished. These references to judgment as punishment for ungodliness place the readers within a paradigm with which they were familiar and comfortable, as the author states in verse 5: "I desire to remind you, though you are fully informed. . . . " They did not need to be convinced that God punished the ungodly.
References to future judgment, on the other hand, emphasize laying charges of ungodliness and producing a guilty verdict, as seen in verses 14-15. But these verses do not refer to such judgment in a generic fashion. The prophecy of Enoch is explicitly applied to the intruders in verse 14: "It was also about these that Enoch . . . prophesied. . . . " The readers needed to be reassured of the divine perspective on their situation. They needed to be convinced that the Lord will lay charges of ungodliness against these intruders and will bring a guilty verdict against them.
Jude places considerable emphasis on past judgment and future judgment, but the primary focus is upon present judgment - judgment understood not as punishment but as laying charges and pronouncing guilty. As the author writing these words, Jude is bringing present judgment against the intruders. He is laying charges of ungodliness against them and producing evidence against them so as to pronounce them guilty. But this is not merely his own judgment on the matter. In verse 4 Jude asserts that it is also God's judgment by describing the intruders as "people who long ago were designated for this condemnation as ungodly. . . . "
While the focus of judgment in Jude is on present judgment, the crux of the matter is not the author's present judgment on the intruders, nor even the divine verdict. The crux of the matter is, what will the readers' judgment be? Jude lays out for the readers the charges against the intruders, and he provides the evidence against them. But will the readers pronounce the intruders guilty? This is the rhetorical function of the theme of eschatological judgment in Jude: to convince the readers to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness.
References to past judgment, future judgment, and present judgment all work together to further this rhetorical function. We may observe this by following the flow of Jude's presentation. In verses 5-7 the readers are reminded of well-known past examples of divine punishment of the ungodly. These past examples reach into the present, for they "serve as an example" (v. 7). The judgment paradigm has now been set in place. Then in verses 8-10 these past examples are explicitly applied to the intruders ("yet in the same way," v. 8) by demonstrating that their ungodliness is similar to that of the examples from the past. These verses supply the evidence to support Jude's verdict. In verse 11 the woe oracle is applied directly to the reader's own situation with the intruders ("Woe to them!" v. 11), and then in verses 12-13 further evidence is presented to support a verdict of ungodliness. The six metaphors in verses 12-13 have a strong emotive content, and thus are designed to produce strong negative pathos against the intruders. The future judgment by the Lord in verses 14-16 corroborates the judgment which has been made by Jude and which is being sought from the readers. And this is weighty corroboration indeed; it is the Lord who brings this judgment. Verse 16 provides the evidence against the intruders to support the claim that this prophecy is actually against the intruders.
Finally, Jude brings forth his last witness: the apostles' predictions about such people (vv. 17-18) which find fulfillment in the qualities of the intruders (v. 19). All these references function rhetorically to convince the readers that they also must pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness.
Of the two eschatological poles, judgment and salvation, clearly it is eschatological judgment which contributes most prominently to the rhetoric of Jude. However, eschatological salvation also contributes to the epistles rhetoric. If judgment is being announced and called for, and the recipients of the judgment have mingled with the community, then this could lead to insecurity and fear on the part of the readers. The descriptions of eschatological salvation address this insecurity and fear by emphasizing that they will receive mercy at the parousia (v. 21) and they will be protected by God until that time (vv. 1b, 24). This eschatological theme functions rhetorically to reassure the readers that, in contrast to the intruders, they will receive mercy and not judgment. It also functions rhetorically to reassure them that they are able to make the judgment that Jude is calling them to render without fear; God is protecting them.
Not only does the eschatological emphasis in Jude have a rhetorical function, it also has a social function. The evidence in Jude suggests that the opponents against whom Jude is writing have been accepted within the community. The statement in verse 4 that "certain intruders have stolen in among you" is a pejorative way of describing newcomers entering a community and being accepted there. Similarly, verse 12 implies that these newcomers are worshiping in the community, participating in their "love-feasts." Verses 22-23 imply that these newcomers are having an influence upon other members of the community.
If this is the case, then the eschatological themes of judgment and salvation have a social function. They are designed to bring about a separation between the original community and the newcomers; it produces an "us-and-them" distinction. "We" are the ones who share salvation (v. 3) and are guarded until "we" receive it at the parousia. But "they" are the ones who are guilty of ungodliness, and "they" will be judged by the lord at the parousia. The groups which had become intermingled are being separated by these eschatological themes.
Our analysis of the rhetorical function contributes to this social function, for pronouncing a verdict of ungodliness against the intruders in effect labels them. They are the "ungodly." This type of division is further accentuated by the repeated rhetorical device of addressing the readers as "beloved" (vv. 3, 17, 20) in contrast to the repeated reference to the intruders as "them" (vv. 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19).
CONCLUSION
This analysis of Jude's eschatology has led us to consider two functions of that eschatology. The rhetorical function is an attempt to convince the readers to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness. The social function is an attempt to produce a separation between the original community and the intruders.
The two functions are related, for they both address the threat which the author perceives in the readers' situation. At first reading the threat might appear to be an external threat—intruders have stolen in. That external threat is indeed there, but the threat which is of greater concern to Jude is the internal threat, that is, the effect that the intruders are having upon the ethics, theology, and unity of the original community.
By observing the situation as having both an external and internal threat, we are able to understand the rhetorical and social functions of Jude's eschatology within the strategy of the epistle. Jude's eschatology functions to address the external threat, but the net effect is actually to address the internal threat to the community itself. By exhorting them to "contend for the faith" against the external threat (vv. 3-4), Jude accomplishes his other primary exhortation to them which addresses the internal threat, "keep yourselves in the love of God" (v. 21).
(1) to convince his readers also to engage in judgment: to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness, and
(2) to reassure his readers that they themselves will not be judged but instead are being guarded by God.
The social function of Jude's eschatology is to bring about a separation between the original community and the intruders. These two functions address both the external threat of the intruders themselves and the internal threat of their negative impact on the readers' ethics, theology, and unity.
Key words: Jude, eschatology, judgment, rhetoric
Eschatological Salvation in Jude
The theme of eschatological salvation is most clearly stated in the appeal in verse 21, in which Jude exhorts his readers to be "looking forward to the mercy of our lord Jesus God's anointed one unto age upon age lasting life." The term "mercy" was frequently used to identify the hope of eschatological salvation, and the verb "to look forward" is used to express anticipation of that hope. Eschatological salvation is also hinted at in the opening salutation, in which the readers are described as those who are "kept safe for Jesus God's anointed one" (v.1b). Both these references allude to the parousia. In verse 21 the parousia of Jesus God's anointed one is not only a time when he will extend mercy to believers, the parousia is itself mercy for believers; that which has been anticipated is now fulfilled; that which has been endured is now done away. In verse 1 the parousia of Jesus is the anticipated goal for which God guards believers.
Similarly, in the first half of the letter's concluding benediction, Jude affirms for his readers that God "is able . . . to make you stand without blemish in the presence of his glory with rejoicing" (v. 24). This reference probably pictures "the eschatological festival of worship." After the parousia the people of God are presented before him as sacrifices without blemish, who worship the one who kept them safe (v.1b) and guarded them (v. 24)
Eschatological Judgment in Jude
While this epistle does refer to eschatological salvation, it is quite evident that the most prominent feature of this epistle's eschatology is the theme of judgment.
Two general observations need to be made before we proceed to examine this theme more closely. First of all, the concept of eschatological judgment is an analogy drawn from human judicial systems. A judicial system incorporates various elements, including a charge laid against a defendant, evidence to support the charge, a verdict, a passing of sentence, and an execution of the punishment. Eschatological judgment incorporates these same elements. It is important when examining the theme of eschatological judgment to distinguish between these various elements that contribute to this theme.
Second, in Jude the theme of judgment is not only a future eschatological event. Past and present are woven together with the future to produce a rich tapestry of intimations, allusions, and interpretations. Yet allusions to past and present judgment are still part of the eschatological orientation of the epistle, for they contribute to understanding the theme of the future, eschatological judgment. Such a relationship between past and future is one of the features of the apocalyptic genre. While Jude is an epistle, not an apocalypse, Jude's perspective is clearly informed by an apocalyptic orientation.
Applying these two observations to the text of Jude allows us to be more discerning about how this eschatological theme is functioning in Jude.
Explicit references to past judgment have been grouped together by the author into two sets of three. The first triad, verses 5-7, summarizes three illustrations of judgment gathered from stories of the past: the Israelites being destroyed in the wilderness, the disenfranchised angels being kept in chains awaiting judgment, and Sodom and Gomorrah being punished with eternal fire. In the second triad, verse 11, the mere names of three infamous characters conjure up images of judgment: Cain, Balaam, and Korah.
These two sets of triads, however, do not merely refer to judgment in the past. They also allude to the present and the future. The disenfranchised angels are not simply described as having been judged in the past, but are described as "kept in perpetual chains under darkness" in the present. And with respect to the future, these chains hold them until "the judgment of the great day" (v. 6). Similarly, the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were not merely punished in the past; their punishment is "eternal fire" in which they continue to be "exhibited as an example" in the present (v. 7). Not only does the language used in describing these primordial events suggest they have a paradigmatic significance for the readers, the text makes this explicit by linking these three examples to the readers' own current situation in verse 8: “Yet in the same way also these dreamers. . . .”
In much the same way, the brief references to Cain, Balaam, and Korah (v. 11) are not only references to past judgment. They are contained within a woe pronounced upon "them," that is, the intruders Jude is opposing. Past judgment upon these three characters becomes a present condemnation of the intruders.
A closer examination of these references to past judgment clarifies more precisely the aspects of judgment being emphasized. With respect to the first triad (vv. 5-7), the main point of each illustration of judgment is expressed by the finite verb. In each case the emphasis is upon the execution of some form of punishment: the wilderness wanderers are "destroyed"; the disenfranchised angels are "kept" in perpetual chains and darkness," and the cities are "exhibited as an example by undergoing the punishment of fire." While the emphasis of this triad is on the execution of punishment, the evidence brought against each of them is also mentioned in a participial clause: the wilderness wanderers were those "who did not believe;" the disenfranchised angels were those "who did not keep their own dominion, but abandoned their proper dwelling," and the cities were those which "indulged in sexual immorality and went after different flesh."
With respect to future judgment, the strongest statement is the quotation of Enoch's prophecy in verses 14-15. "Behold, the Lord is coming with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment against all, and to convict all the ungodly of all the deeds of ungodliness which they have committed in an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things which ungodly sinners have spoken against him." The parousia, which is anticipated as the time of eschatological salvation, is in this text announced as the time of eschatological judgment. It is important to note, however, that certain elements of judgment are highlighted. Jude's quotation of 1 Enoch 1:9 does not follow any extant version.
The first difference between Jude's text and the others which is significant for our purposes is the number of elements of eschatological judgment brought by the lord. The two elements contained in Jude's quote are:
(1) "to execute judgment against all"
(2) "to convict all the ungodly".
The Greek, Ethiopic and Latin versions do not have two elements as does Jude, but three:
(1) to execute judgment;
(2) to destroy, and
(3) to convict.
The first of these is a general reference to judgment, and by itself it does not specify any particular element of the judicial process. And Jude has used this first element. But Jude has chosen not to refer at all to the destruction of the ungodly (i.e., the element of punishment) so that he might focus attention on one specific element of the judicial process: the ungodly being convicted of the charges laid against them.
This places Jude's use of 1 Enoch 1:9 in some tension with its immediate context in 1 Enoch 1 which is filled with echoes of the divine warrior tradition; a tradition which emphasizes the element of punishment. If, as is probable, Jude's audience was aware of this context, then Jude's redaction of the text would contribute to its rhetorical effect.
The second significant difference is that the identification of those being convicted is changed. In the other versions the object of the verb "to destroy" is "the ungodly," and the object of the verb "to convict" is "all flesh." The other versions of 1 Enoch 1:9 emphasize the universality of the process of being convicted and reserve destruction specifically for the ungodly. Jude drops the universal reference to "all flesh," but he retains the specific reference to "the ungodly," making them the focus of the conviction. With this alteration Jude focuses the eschatological judgment, and the element of conviction in particular, on the ungodly.
Both these redactional alterations in Jude's quotations of 1 Enoch do one thing: they bring greater focus and specificity to the nature and recipients of the judgment. By removing a reference to that part of the judicial process in which the punishment is carried out, judgment is specified as laying charges and convicting of those charges. By removing a reference to "all flesh," judgment is focused on those identified as ungodly. Thus, this reference to eschatological judgment focuses attention on the particular judicial elements of bringing a charge of ungodliness and producing a verdict of guilty.
What we see thus far with respect to judgment in Jude is that references to past judgment focus on the punishment aspect of the judicial process, while the references to future judgment focus on other elements of the judicial system, namely, laying charges and producing a guilty verdict.
As with future judgment, references to present judgment in Jude also concentrate on those aspects of the judicial process involving laying charges and producing a guilty verdict. For example, verses 8-10 apply the examples from the past (vv. 5-7) to the intruders. But the attention is focused on the evidence to support a charge of ungodliness, and not on punishment.
A second example may be observed in the woe oracle in verse 11 which is the second triad of allusions to stories of judgment in the Hebrew Bible. Each specific reference alludes to the evil behavior of the individual: "the way of Cain," "the error of Balaam," and "the rebellion of Korah." While the stories associated with each individual in both the Hebrew Bible and later Jewish tradition expand on both their evil behavior and their subsequent punishment, the focus of Jude's allusion in each instance is upon their evil behavior. This woe oracle is not announcing woe upon these persons from the past but upon the intruders whom Jude is denouncing. The oracle begins, "Woe to them!" The antecedent of is the pronoun in verses 10 and 8, and alludes back ultimately to the intruders described in verse 4. Thus, each of the three statements in this triad are describing the intruders: the intruders "go in the way of Cain;" the intruders "abandon themselves to Balaam's error," and it is the intruders who "perish in Korah's rebellion."
Notice:
First of all, the eschatology has a rhetorical function, which in turn has a number of distinct elements. References to past judgment, especially verses 5-7, emphasize the punishment of those who committed acts of ungodliness. These examples from the past would be familiar to Jude's Jewish-Christian readers, who would naturally respond with agreement in two ways: those people were obviously ungodly, and they clearly deserved to be punished. These references to judgment as punishment for ungodliness place the readers within a paradigm with which they were familiar and comfortable, as the author states in verse 5: "I desire to remind you, though you are fully informed. . . . " They did not need to be convinced that God punished the ungodly.
References to future judgment, on the other hand, emphasize laying charges of ungodliness and producing a guilty verdict, as seen in verses 14-15. But these verses do not refer to such judgment in a generic fashion. The prophecy of Enoch is explicitly applied to the intruders in verse 14: "It was also about these that Enoch . . . prophesied. . . . " The readers needed to be reassured of the divine perspective on their situation. They needed to be convinced that the Lord will lay charges of ungodliness against these intruders and will bring a guilty verdict against them.
Jude places considerable emphasis on past judgment and future judgment, but the primary focus is upon present judgment - judgment understood not as punishment but as laying charges and pronouncing guilty. As the author writing these words, Jude is bringing present judgment against the intruders. He is laying charges of ungodliness against them and producing evidence against them so as to pronounce them guilty. But this is not merely his own judgment on the matter. In verse 4 Jude asserts that it is also God's judgment by describing the intruders as "people who long ago were designated for this condemnation as ungodly. . . . "
While the focus of judgment in Jude is on present judgment, the crux of the matter is not the author's present judgment on the intruders, nor even the divine verdict. The crux of the matter is, what will the readers' judgment be? Jude lays out for the readers the charges against the intruders, and he provides the evidence against them. But will the readers pronounce the intruders guilty? This is the rhetorical function of the theme of eschatological judgment in Jude: to convince the readers to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness.
References to past judgment, future judgment, and present judgment all work together to further this rhetorical function. We may observe this by following the flow of Jude's presentation. In verses 5-7 the readers are reminded of well-known past examples of divine punishment of the ungodly. These past examples reach into the present, for they "serve as an example" (v. 7). The judgment paradigm has now been set in place. Then in verses 8-10 these past examples are explicitly applied to the intruders ("yet in the same way," v. 8) by demonstrating that their ungodliness is similar to that of the examples from the past. These verses supply the evidence to support Jude's verdict. In verse 11 the woe oracle is applied directly to the reader's own situation with the intruders ("Woe to them!" v. 11), and then in verses 12-13 further evidence is presented to support a verdict of ungodliness. The six metaphors in verses 12-13 have a strong emotive content, and thus are designed to produce strong negative pathos against the intruders. The future judgment by the Lord in verses 14-16 corroborates the judgment which has been made by Jude and which is being sought from the readers. And this is weighty corroboration indeed; it is the Lord who brings this judgment. Verse 16 provides the evidence against the intruders to support the claim that this prophecy is actually against the intruders.
Finally, Jude brings forth his last witness: the apostles' predictions about such people (vv. 17-18) which find fulfillment in the qualities of the intruders (v. 19). All these references function rhetorically to convince the readers that they also must pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness.
Of the two eschatological poles, judgment and salvation, clearly it is eschatological judgment which contributes most prominently to the rhetoric of Jude. However, eschatological salvation also contributes to the epistles rhetoric. If judgment is being announced and called for, and the recipients of the judgment have mingled with the community, then this could lead to insecurity and fear on the part of the readers. The descriptions of eschatological salvation address this insecurity and fear by emphasizing that they will receive mercy at the parousia (v. 21) and they will be protected by God until that time (vv. 1b, 24). This eschatological theme functions rhetorically to reassure the readers that, in contrast to the intruders, they will receive mercy and not judgment. It also functions rhetorically to reassure them that they are able to make the judgment that Jude is calling them to render without fear; God is protecting them.
Not only does the eschatological emphasis in Jude have a rhetorical function, it also has a social function. The evidence in Jude suggests that the opponents against whom Jude is writing have been accepted within the community. The statement in verse 4 that "certain intruders have stolen in among you" is a pejorative way of describing newcomers entering a community and being accepted there. Similarly, verse 12 implies that these newcomers are worshiping in the community, participating in their "love-feasts." Verses 22-23 imply that these newcomers are having an influence upon other members of the community.
If this is the case, then the eschatological themes of judgment and salvation have a social function. They are designed to bring about a separation between the original community and the newcomers; it produces an "us-and-them" distinction. "We" are the ones who share salvation (v. 3) and are guarded until "we" receive it at the parousia. But "they" are the ones who are guilty of ungodliness, and "they" will be judged by the lord at the parousia. The groups which had become intermingled are being separated by these eschatological themes.
Our analysis of the rhetorical function contributes to this social function, for pronouncing a verdict of ungodliness against the intruders in effect labels them. They are the "ungodly." This type of division is further accentuated by the repeated rhetorical device of addressing the readers as "beloved" (vv. 3, 17, 20) in contrast to the repeated reference to the intruders as "them" (vv. 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19).
CONCLUSION
This analysis of Jude's eschatology has led us to consider two functions of that eschatology. The rhetorical function is an attempt to convince the readers to pronounce the intruders guilty of ungodliness. The social function is an attempt to produce a separation between the original community and the intruders.
The two functions are related, for they both address the threat which the author perceives in the readers' situation. At first reading the threat might appear to be an external threat—intruders have stolen in. That external threat is indeed there, but the threat which is of greater concern to Jude is the internal threat, that is, the effect that the intruders are having upon the ethics, theology, and unity of the original community.
By observing the situation as having both an external and internal threat, we are able to understand the rhetorical and social functions of Jude's eschatology within the strategy of the epistle. Jude's eschatology functions to address the external threat, but the net effect is actually to address the internal threat to the community itself. By exhorting them to "contend for the faith" against the external threat (vv. 3-4), Jude accomplishes his other primary exhortation to them which addresses the internal threat, "keep yourselves in the love of God" (v. 21).
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